The CCUS supply chain involves the capture—separation and purification—of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from stationary sources so it can be transported to a suitable location where it is used to create products or injected deep underground for safe, secure, and permanent storage. Stationary CO₂ emissions are generated at fixed points and include sources such as power generation and industrial processes

SUPPLY CHAIN AND ECONOMICS

In the world there are 19 large scales facilities that avoid 32 MM tonnes of CO₂ through it out into the atmosphere. In the EEUU, the amount of facilities just covers 1 % of their total emissions, estimated in 5,2 Billion tonnes.

World large scales facilities	19	32MM tonnes CO2 avoided
EEUU large scale CCUS	10	25MM tonnes CO2 avoided	1% of the emissions avoided
EEUU emissions in 2019		5,2 Billion tonnes of CO2 emitted in 2019
From Stationary points	6500	2,6 Billion tonnes of CO2 emitted in 2019

EEUU is the leader on disruptive technologies to storage and reuse CO₂ (enhanced oil recovery). In order to reach higher level of reduction, it has created 4 phases along 25 years where the EEUU will be able to avoid the 20 % of their emissions. The incentive is based on boost the price from 0 $ (current status) to 110, avoiding 500 Million tonnes. It is called the phase of deployment, when technologies that will be in early stages of development, could reach higher level of maturity and be installed in US facilities.

	Period	Name phase	Incentive	CO2 avoided	% reduction
PHASE 0	2019	–	0	25.106tonnes	1 %
PHASE I	7 years	Activation	50 $/tonne	40.106tonnes
PHASE II	15 years	Expansion	90 $/tonne	85.106tonnes
PHASE III	25 years	Deployment	110 $/tonne	500.106tonnes	20%

This strategy is supported on the increase of pipeline system around their facilities, creating an environment that will facilitate cost reduction due to the improvement on infrastructures, that will open the opportunities for other companies, to get advantages of this pipeline system to introduce their CO₂. A framework around CO₂ will be created and so a market.

As explained before, the CO₂ is capture, transported and converted or storage deep underground.

Source of CO₂

CO₂ is emitted from a wide range of sources across a broad range of industries. The original source of the carbon in the CO₂ is the carbon present in a wide variety of feedstocks used in natural and industrial processes to create and supply the products necessary for modern life. These industrial processes release some or all of the CO₂ generated.

• Biomass absorbs carbon from the air as it grows and can be used to generate liquid fuels, such as ethanol, or burned to create heat and power.
  • Natural gas is produced and then processed (natural gas processing) to remove CO₂ to meet use specifications. Natural gas can be:
    • Used to generate electricity in power plants
    • Used to provide heat and energy in industrial furnaces and stoves
  • Separated to make hydrogen for use in industrial processes and refining, and for the creation of chemicals such as ammonia
    • Used in the production of cement.
  • Coal is predominantly burned in power plants to generate electricity, although it is also used to provide high temperature heat to industrial furnaces, steel furnaces, and cement plants. 
  • Crude oil is processed at refineries to generate gasoline and other hydrocarbon-based products. 
  • Municipal trash can be burned to generate electricity or gasified and converted to liquid fuels such as diesel and jet fuel.
  • CO₂ is released from limestone as it is heated to produce cement.
  • CO₂ is also present in ambient air. This CO₂ can be removed from the air through direct air capture technologies.

In these sources, industries, and processes, CO₂ is produced in a variety of volumes and concentrations. Some processes, such as natural gas processing, ethanol fermentation, and ammonia production, create streams that have concentrations of 95% to 100% CO₂. The concentrated streams produced from these facilities typically require no separation and only dehydration and compression before transport.

Most of the other processes produce lower concentration streams that will require further separation before dehydration and preparation for transport. Typical CO₂ concentrations are as follows:

• Industrial hydrogen plants: 15% to 95% 
• Steel blast furnaces: 26%
• Cement plants: 20%
• Refinery fluidized catalytic crackers: 16%
• Coal power plants: 13%
• Industrial furnaces: 8%
• Natural gas power plants: 4%

CO₂ Capture:

CO₂ is produced in combination with other gases during industrial processes, including hydrocarbon-based power generation. CO₂ capture involves the separation of the CO₂ from these other gases. This step, which can represent around 75% of the cost of the CCUS supply chain for low concentration streams, presents the largest opportunity to apply technological innovation to help reduce overall cost. Oil and natural gas producers have decades of experience in separating CO₂ from hydrocarbons, and other industries are making progress in separating CO₂ from their own process streams. The separation of CO₂ can be accomplished through the application of four main CO₂ capture technologies:

• Absorption, which is the uptake of CO₂ into the bulk phase of another material 
• Adsorption, which is the uptake of CO₂ onto the surface of another material
• Membranes, which selectively separate CO₂ primarily based on differences in solubility or diffusivity 
• Cryogenic processes, which chill the gas stream to separate CO₂

Transport:

In most cases, captured CO₂ will need to be transported from the capture location to a location where it can be stored or utilized. Typical modes of transportation are as follows:

• Pipelines are generally the most cost-effective method of transporting large volumes of any fluid, including CO₂. In most cases, CO₂ is compressed into a dense phase, referred to as a supercritical fluid, before entering a pipeline system. In this state, CO₂ can be pumped like other liquids 
• Railcars may be cost effective for small to medium volumes of CO₂ over longer distances if there are existing rail routes from near the source to the vicinity of the storage. Rail transport may require construction of a liquefaction facility at the point of origin 
• Trucks may be cost effective for very small volumes of CO₂ traveling short distances. Like rail, trucking can take advantage of existing infrastructure, but also like rail, liquefaction facilities may be needed at the point of origin 
• Ship and barge transport is technically feasible but has only been demonstrated in isolated instances. Ship transport of CO₂ could potentially move large volumes of CO₂ from source locations with limited storage capacity to locations with ample storage capacity located near waterways that can accommodate such vessel.

Use

CO₂ use technologies convert CO₂ into valuable products like fuels, chemicals, and materials through chemical reactions and/or biological conversions. There are four primary technology pathways for CO₂ use and conversion:            

1. Thermochemical CO₂ conversion              
2. Electrochemical and photochemical CO₂ conversion         
3. Carbonation (carbon mineralization) of CO₂        
4. Biological CO₂ use.          

Overall, CO₂ use is the least mature component in the CCUS technology chain. It presents significant opportunities and multiple technology pathways for the development of processes to convert CO₂ from captured emissions and waste CO₂ into useful products

Storage:

Safe and secure geologic storage of CO₂ requires that the injection formation have enough pore space, or porosity, within which CO₂ can be contained. The formation must also have enough pathways connecting this pore space, which defines its permeability, so that CO₂ can be injected and move within the formation. The storage formation also needs to have a geologic seal—an overlying layer of nonporous, impermeable rock that prevents the injected CO2 from leaving the formation. To ensure that the CO₂ is stored as a supercritical fluid, which has benefits for storage security and efficient storage space utilization, formations need to be at a depth of about 1 km or more.  Examples of subsurface formations include saline formations, oil and natural gas reservoirs, and un-mineable coalbeds. Globally, there are more than 20 years of experience with CO₂ injection for large-scale (more than 1 Mtpa) geologic storage, such as the Sleipner gas field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. In the United States, small-scale projects have been operating for nearly as long, while the large-scale Illinois Industrial Carbon Capture and Storage Project has been operating since 2017.

In order to remove CO₂ we would need to established the following targets to increase the probability of improvements:

• Meet pipelines specifications
• Enough return from the integrated CCS-EOR project
• Executing successful CO₂ capture projects
• Investing in CO₂ pipeline infrastructure (essential for increase options for industry to capture, storage and use)
• Establishing a supportive regulatory framework
• Enacting world-leading policy support
• Investing in research, development, and demonstration (RD&D).

CCU TECHNOLOGIES AROUND THE WORLD

There are several projects around the world (small scale in many cases) that handle different techniques or technologies to capture and use CO₂. In the following tables it is shown by continent the main projects with characteristics:

EUROPE
Project name	Process	Status	Date	Location	CO2 source
ArcelorMittal Steelanol Ghent	Produce bioethanol from CO2 emissions from blast furnaces in a steel mill. LanzaTech’s gas fermentation technology.	In construction	2020	Belgium	Iron and steel
Twence Waste-to-energy CO2 Capture and Utilisation	Capturing CO2 from the flue gasses for the production of sodium bicarbonate.	Operational	2014	Netherlands	Waste incineration

ASIA
Project name	Process	Application	Status	Tonnes/year of CO2	Year	Country	CO2 source
Tuticorin CCU Project (Carbon Clean Solutions)	CO2 capture	Feedstock for soda ash production		60000	2016	India	Power generation
Shanghai Shidongkou 2nd Power Plant Carbon Capture Demonstration Project	CO2 capture	Beverage industry	Operational	120000	2009	China	Power generation
Toshiba Corporation	CO2 capture	Crop cultivation and algae culture.		3650	2016	Japan	Saga City Waste Incineration Plant
Huaneng Gaobeidian Power Plant Carbon Capture Pilot Project	CO2 capture	Beverage industry		3000		China	Coal-fired power plant
CO2 Recovery Plants	CO2 recovery	Food and beverage industry		100000		China	Chemical industry: ammonia production
Chongqing Hechuan Shuanghuai: Industrial Demonstration Project	CO2 capture	Hydrogen cooled generator replacement	Operational	10000	2010	China	Power generation
Alcoa Kwinana Carbonation Plant	CO2 valorisation	Treatment carbonation plant	Operational	70000		Australia	Fertiliser production
Beijing Shougang LanzaTech New Energy Technology	CO2 valorisation	Fuel grade ethanol.			2018	China	Iron and Steel production

MIDDLE EAST
Project name	CCUS Technology	Production	Status	Tonnes/year	Location	CO2 source
SABIC Carbon Capture and Utilisation Project	CCUS technology	Enhanced methanol chemical and urea fertiliser production.		550000	Saudi Arabia	Chemical production: ethylene glycol plants

NORTH AMERICA
Project name	CCUS Technology	Production	Status	Tonnes/year	Location	Date	CO2 source
AES Shady Point CO2 Recovery Plant	CO2 recovery	food & beverage	Operational	66000	USA		Power generation
AES Warrior Run CO2 Recovery Plant	CO2 recovery	food & beverage	Operational	110000	USA		Power generation
CO₂MENT project	CO₂ capture		Advanced development	365	Canada	2021	Cement production
Saint-Felicien Pulp Mill and Greenhouse Carbon Capture Project	CO2 capture		Operational	10000	Canada	2019	Pulp and paper production
Searles Valley Minerals CO2 Capture Plant	CO2 capture	carbonate brine for soda ash	Operational	300000	USA		Power generation
Skyonic Carbon Capture and Mineralisation Project	CO2 capture and mineralisation	sodium bicarbonate.	Operational	75000	USA		Cement production

AFRICA
Project name	CCUS Technology	Production	Status	Tonnes/year	Location	CO2 source
Swayana Mpumalang	CO2 valorisation	Fuel ethanol	Development planning	South Africa	2020	Industrial application: Ferroalloy plant

We have seen that in Europe there are existing projects to produce ethanol from CO₂ that has been captured. Asia also lead with innovative technologies of capture and valorisation. It is highlighting the different sectors of CO₂ resources that have applied to collaborate. From power to fertilizer, cement and chemical production. That’s a new approach among companies to cut their emissions meanwhile getting revenues (food beverages, fuel grade ethanol). So, we can conclude that bactofuel could be part of this ecosystem.

A NEW PERSPECTIVE. IN THE RESEARCH OF A SEGMENT MARKET: Analysis of different factors related to CCUS technologies

In the following paragraphs and tables, an outlined analysis has been prepared to determine the best location of the facility, in relation with this regard. Analysing by storage resources, legal and regulatory framework proactivity, we might screen and select the most attractive country for Bactofuel technology application. The criteria analysed was:

• Storage resources
• Storage indicators
• Legal and regulatory framework
• Policy indicator
• CCS requirement indicator
• CCS READINESS INDEX

Storage resources: National resources in GtCO₂: include deep saline formation, depleted oil and gas fields, and CO₂-EOR estimates

Less than 1 (GtCO2)	1-9 (GtCO2)	10-100 (GtCO2)	+100 (GtCO2)
Spain	Poland	France	Canada
Morocco	Italy	UK	EEUU
Belgium	Algeria	Germany	México
Switzerland	Sweden	Austria	Brazil
Czechia	Indonesia	Romania	South Africa
Bulgaria	Ireland	Norway	China
Greece	Hungary	Iran	Japan
	Croatia	Saudi Arabia	Australia
	Kazakhstan	Pakistan
	Lithuania	India
		Russia

As Bactofuel is a project that will “compete” with CCS technologies, the lower storage resources the better, because if, in the near future, more policy restrictions to cut CO₂ emissions will be integrated in the value chain of stakeholders, CO₂ must be either stored or used. So countries like Spain, Italy or Hungary would be on the list.

Storage indicators: individual nation’s development of its storage resources. The indicator evaluates a country’s geological storage potential, maturity of their storage assessments and progress in the deployment of CO₂ injection sites.

0-30	30-50	50-70	70-100
Kazakhstan	India	Mexico	EEUU
Pakistan	South Africa	Argelia	Canada
	Morocco	Spain	Saudi Arabia
	Portugal	France	China
	Turkey	Poland	Australia
	Iran	Italy	Germany
	Greece	Russia	United Kingdom
	Bulgaria	Indonesia	Norway
	Sweden	Austria	Brazil
	Switzerland	Croatia
	Belgium	Romania
		Hungary

Storage indicators will be translated in efforts that countries are doing to speed up on CCS technologies.  Also, it could be translated in level of interest of countries to improve their CCS technologies. So the higher, the better. France, Spain, Italy and Hungary might be the options, among others.

Legal and regulatory framework: Administrative and permitting arrangements across the project lifecycle, including issues related to environmental assessments, public consultation and long-term liability

0-30	30-50	50-70	70-100
India	Mexico	Portugal	EEUU
Saudi Arabia	Brazil	France	Canada
Ireland	Spain	Italy	Australia
	Algeria	Germany	UK
	South Africa	Poland
	Russia	Greece
	China	Bulgaria
	Finland	Sweden
	Norway	Croatia
	Romania	Hungary
	Belgium
	Indonesia
	Japan

This is one of the key aspects, the level of commitment of governments to include CCUS technologies in their legislation. The higher the better. It will mean that the country will be more open for disruptive technologies like Bactofuel. Italy, Hungary, France and Portugal have good levels of regulatory. However, India, Ireland and China, among others, have low levels of legal framework.

Policy indicator: Individual nation’s CCS policy development. Direct support for CCS to broaden implicit climate change and emissions reduction policies. The resulting indicator score represents a comprehensive model for tracking progress and opportunities for the development of policies to support CCS deployment.

0-12	12-24	24-36	36-48	48-60
Brazil	Australia	Netherlands	UK	Norway
South Africa	Francia	Denmark	China
Saudi Arabia	Mexico		EEUU
Indonesia	Italy		Canada
Russia	Germany
Algeria	Ireland
Spain	Switzerland
Sweden	Finland
Poland
Romania
Bulgaria
Greece
Portugal
India
Indonesia
Croatia

Also, it is important for Bactofuel high policy indicators. It will be translated in same solutions has been implemented, or there are options for reduce GHG emissions, and Bactofuel could be an option to be added for one company based there. None of the countries selected in previous rounds appear on the highest columns. Bad policies in Spain, Italy or Portugal would lead to discard this country due to their poor policies regulations on this regard.

CCS requirement indicator: Relative index based on the global share of fossil fuel production and consumption. It provides one guide of a country’s need to deploy CCS to reduce their emissions from fossil fuels.

0-22	23-44	45-66	67-88
Algeria	UK	India	China
Switzerland	France	Canada	USA
Libya	Brazil	Germany	Russia
Venezuela	South Africa	Poland
Bolivia	Turkey	Australia
	Saudi Arabia	Kazakhstan
	Pakistan	Indonesia
	Iran	Ukraine
	Mexico
	Finland
	Sweden
	Norway
	Belgium
	Spain
	Ireland
	Romania
	Hungary
	Austria
	Italy

As one of the market segments is work in collaboration with petrochemical companies, this parameter also could show us what countries, even though they are working with other CCS technologies, they are still far above from the targets established. On the left side of the table, we could summarize what countries are not working on reduce their emissions. Libya, Venezuela and Bolivia are one among others included in this list. Germany appears as a candidate. Australia also would be a good candidate.

– CCS READINESS INDEX: it monitors the progress of CCS deployment. The index tracks a country’s requirement for CCS, its policy, law and regulation and storage resource development. Through these indicators, the RI identifies those nations which are leaders in the creation of a enabling environment for the commercial deployment of CCS.

0-20	20-40	50-75	60-75
Switzerland	Russia	Germany	UK
	Spain	France	Australia
	Algeria	Italy	EEUU
	Saudi Arabia	Mexico	Canada
	India	Brazil	Norway
	South Africa	Poland
	Indonesia	China
	Sweden	Japan
	Finland	Netherlands
	Ireland	Denmark
	Belgium
	Romania
	Bulgaria
	Greece

Germany, Norway, UK, EEUU, are part of the list of good candidates for include Bactofuel within their project portfolios.

This task will be developed when the appendix “location” within the tech-to-market plan. Once the market analysis is defined, and process and capacity are defined too, we could establish a relationship between them to look for the best scenario.